Medical

The medicine is the art and science of healing. It includes a series of practices designed to preserve health care and restoration of health through prevention and treatment of diseases.

Modern medicine applies health science, biomedical research and medical technology to diagnose and treat injury and disease, usually by medication, surgery or another form of therapy. The word medicine is derived from the Latin ars medicina, meaning the art of healing.

Although the medical and clinical expertise to key contemporary medicine, successful face-to-face relief of actual suffering continues to have recourse to normal human emotion and compassion that require English as a bedside table in a known manner.

Contents
1 History
2 Clinical Practice
3 Institutions
3.1 Delivery
4 branches
4.1 Basic Sciences
4.2 Specialties
4.2.1 Surgery
4.2.2 "medicine" as a specialty
4.2.3 Diagnostic specialties
4.2.4 Other major specialties
4.3 interdisciplinary areas
5 Education
6 Legal controls
7 dispute
8 See also
9 References
10 External links


History
Main article: Speedot Medicine

The ancient Sumerian God Ningishzida, the patron saint of medicine, to include two gryphonsPrehistoric medicinal plants (herbal medicine) accompanies, pKunst animals and minerals. In many cases, these materials were ritually as magical substances by priests, shamans and medicine men used. Well-known spiritual systems include animism (the notion of inanimate objects with spirits), spiritualism (an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits) shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic staff) and divination (magically obtaining the truth). The field of medical anthropology studies the ways of culture and society are organized around or involved in issues of health, health care and related issues.


Statuette of the Egyptian physician Imhotep, have been discovered by the first doctor from antiquity through medical records of name.Early known from ancient Egyptian medicine, Babylonian medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (forerunner of today's traditional Chinese medicine ) and ancient Greek and Roman medicine medicine. The Egyptian Imhotep (3rd millennium BC) is the first physician in history known by name. Earliest records of dedicated hospitals from Mihintale in Sri Lanka, where the Nrelevant compartments are dedicated to drug treatment facilities for patients are found. [4] [5]


The Greek physician Hippocrates (460 BC - 370 BC), considered the father of Western medicine. [6] [7] The Greek physician Hippocrates, the father of medicine "defined [7] [8], the basis for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath of doctors, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to diseases such as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, to categorize paroxysm, peak and the recovery. "[9:00] [10] The Indian surgeon Sushruta is the father of surgery, with numerous operations described, including the earliest forms of plastic surgery. [11] [12] The Greek physician Galen was also one of the greatest surgeons of the old world and performed many daring operations, including brain and eye operations. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Dark Ages, was the Greek tradition of medicine in decline in Western Europe, although it continuously in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.


A copy of the Latin Canon of Medicine by Avicenna, who is also the father of medicine.After written as 750 CE, the Muslim Arab world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen Sushruta and translated into Arabic and Islamic physicians employed a number of important medical research. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include polymath Avicenna, who called with Imhotep and Hippocrates, even the "father of medicine". [13] [14] He wrote The Canon of Medicine, considered as one of the most famous books in the history of medicine. [15] Others are Abulcasis, [16] Avenzoar, [17] Ibn al-Nafis, [18] and Averroes [19]. Rhazes [20] was one of the first, the Greek theory of humorism, which remained in both medieval Islamic and Western medieval medicine influential question. [21] The Islamic Bimaristan Hospitals were an early example of public hospitals. [22] [23] But the fourteenth and fifteenth century Black Death was just as disastrous for the Middle East than to Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe has generally been effective in recovering from the pandemic than in the Middle East. [24] In the early modern period, the figures are important, soon emerged in medicine and anatomy in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey.


An ancient Greek patient receives medical treatment: This Aryballos (ca. 480-470 BC, now in Paris, the Louvre Museum) probably contained healing oilThe major shift in medical thinking was the gradualche rejection, especially during the plague in the 14th and 15 Century, what is the 'traditional authority' approach to science and medicine. This was the idea that because some prominent person in the past said something must be, then was the way it was and all that it is observed that the contrary was an anomaly (which, by a similar shift in European society parallel general - see Copernicus rejected Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Physicians like Ibn al-Nafis and Vesalius to improved or disproved some of the theories of the past.

Modern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began in the early Western tradition based on herbal medicine to replace the Greek "four humours" and other such pre-modern ideas. The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of smallpox vaccination in the late 18th Century (inspired by the method of vaccination practiced earlier in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of diseases caused by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics in 1900. The post-modernism of the 18th Century brought more time groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From Germany and Austrian doctors (such as Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner, Otto Loewi and) BONTRIBUTIONS done. In the United Kingdom Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister are, Francis Crick, and Florence Nightingale considered important. came from New Zealand and Australia, Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey and Frank Macfarlane Burnet). In the U.S., William Williams KEEN, Harvey Cushing, William Coley, James D. Watson, Italy (Salvador Luria), Switzerland (Alexandre Yersin), Japan (Kitasato Shibasaburo) and France (Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca and others have a lot of work). Russians Nikolai Korotkov also did do important work, like Sir William Osler and Harvey Cushing.

Developed as science and technology medicine was more dependent on drugs. Throughout history and in Europe right until the late 18th Century, not only animal and plant products were used as medicine but also human body parts and fluids [25]. Pharmacology developed from herbalism and many drugs still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc). The first of these was arsphenamine / salvarsan discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908, not after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells. Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur. The first major class of antibiotics was the sulphonamides, followed by French chemists originally from Azofarbstoffen derived. This has become increasingly sophisticated, modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes developed are sometimes developed for compatibility with the body to reduce side effects. Genomics and knowledge of human genetics has been identified among some influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now, and the development of techniques in molecular biology and genetics affect medical practice and decision-making processes.

Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to the most effective algorithms of practice (ways of producing things) through the use of systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The movement is by the modern science of global information that is collected as much of the available evidence as possible to enable easier and according to standard protocols, which are then analyzed to VERBREITUNed health service providers. One problem with this "best practice" approach, is to see that it could to new approaches for treating choking [edit needed]. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A show in 2001, contributions of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews that after two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect,and 22.5% concluded positive [26].

Clinical practice

The Doctor, Sir Luke Fildes (1891), in clinical practice to assess patients doctors in person to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases using clinical assessments. The doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of medical history and medical history, followed by a medical interview [27] and a physical examination. Basic diagnostics (eg, stethoscope, tongue depressor) are normally used. After examination for signs and symptoms of the questioning, the doctor medical tests (eg blood tests), take a biopsy or prescribe, medications or other therapies. Differential diagnostic methods help eliminate conditions at the basis of information provided. During the encounter, the patient properly informed of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then in the medical record, which is a legal document that is documented in many countries [28]. Followups can Seinte shorter, but follow the same general procedure.

The components of the medical interview [27] and the meeting are:

Chief complaint (cc): The reason for the current medical visit. These are the "symptoms". Youin the patients with their own words and, together with the duration of each recorded. Also present as a "complaint."
History of present illness / complaint (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom.
Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what does the patient really.
Drugs (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter and home remedies, as well as alternative and herbal medicines / herbal remedies. Allergies are also recorded.
Medical history (PMH / PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases and / or vaccinations, history of known allergies.
Social History (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including diet, drugs, tobacco, alcohol).
Family History (FH): listing of diseases in the family that the patient may have different effects. A family tree is sometimes used.
to provide verification of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry: a series of additional questions that may be missed on HPI: a general inquiry have (you noticed any weight loss, change in quality of sleep, fever, bumps and unevenness? Etc. ), followed by questions zurder body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc.).
The physical examination is the examination of the patient for signs of disease ('Symptoms' are what the patient volunteers, "signs" are what the healthcare provider detects by examination). The healthcare provider uses the senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and sometimes (eg infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Taste was released by the availability of modern lab tests. Four measures as the basis of physical examination are taught: inspection, palpation, feel (), percussion tap (to determine resonance characteristics) and auscultation (listen). This sequence, depending on the focus of the investigation (eg a joint can be easily checked move look, "feel" should not be changed. Based order this kit is an educational tool that encourages the therapist to be in their approach a systematic and refrain from using tools like the stethoscope before they fully assess the other modalities.

The clinical study includes study:

Vital signs, including size, weight, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation of hemoglobin
General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of the disease (Foodungszustand, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing)
Skin
Head, eyes, ears, nose and throat (HEENT)
Cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels)
Respiratory (large airways and lungs)
Abdomen and rectum
Genitals (and pregnancy if the patient or may be pregnant)
Skeletal muscles (including the spine and extremities)
Neurological (consciousness, awareness, brain, vision, cranial nerves, the spinal cord and peripheral nerves)
Psychiatric (orientation, mental state, evidence for abnormal perception or thought).
It is likely to be focused on highlighting the areas of interest in history and may not include everything listed above.

Laboratory and imaging studies results may be obtained if necessary.

The medical decision-making (MDM) process involves the analysis and synthesis of all the above data come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis, that would explain the patient's problem.

The treatment can also order additional laboratory tests and studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-up can be discussed.


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On subsequent visits, the repetition Prozessated in an abbreviated manner to obtain a new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations.

 Institutions
Today's medicine is usually carried out within health systems. Legal, credentialing and financial conditions are established by individual governments, supplemented at international organizations. The characteristics of a health system is a significant impact on the way the medical care provided.

Advanced industrial countries (excluding the USA) [29] [30] and many developing countries, provision of medical services even though a system of universal health care, the care for all guaranteed by a single-payer health care system, private health insurance or compulsory work objectives or cooperative. This is to ensure that the entire population access to medical care based on the basiclocation of need rather than ability to pay has. Delivery may be through private clinics or public hospitals and clinics or by charities, most often through a combination of all three.

Most tribal societies but also some communist countries (eg China) and the U.S., [29] [30] provide no guarantee of health care for the population as a whole. In such societies, the health care available to afford to pay for it or have it covered by fina care itself (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be able Versichertenced directly by the government or the tribe.


Modern drugs ampoulesTransparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality and pricing affects the choice by patients / consumers and therefore the incentives of the physician. While the U.S. health care system has come under fire for lack of openness, [31] new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand, and issues such as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial purposes on the other.

Delivery
See also: clinic, hospital and hospice
Provision of medical care is divided into primary, secondary and tertiary care categories.

Primary care medical services provided by physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners or other health care professions, the first contact with a patient for medical treatment or care. These occur in doctors' offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits and other places in the vicinity of patients. About 90% of doctor visits can be treated by primary care providers. These include the treatment of acute and chronic diseases, health care and health education for all age groups and both sexes.

Secondary care medical services by specialists in their offices or clinics or at local hospitals Communit vorgeseheny for a patient to a primary health care, which was diagnosed as the first provider or treated the patient. References are for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency rooms, intensive care, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice, etc. Some of the primarymärversorgung providers can also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a Secondary Care setting.

Tertiary care medical services are not of specialist hospitals or regional centers with diagnostic and therapeutic facilities generally furnished to the local hospitals provided. These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation therapy, etc.

Modern medical care also depends on information - still delivered in many health settings, the paper records, but now increasingly by electronic means.

 Branches
Cooperation as an interdisciplinary team, many well-trained medical doctors in addition to the supply of modern health care. Examples include: rescue personnel technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, (pharmacy, pharmacists), (physiotherapy, physiotherapists), respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dieticians and biotechnologists.

The scope and the underlying science medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, during a discipline of medicine, is considered an area of medicine.

A patient admitted to hospitalis presented as a rule under the care of a specific team on their primary task based, for example, the cardiology team, which can then interact with other specialties in interaction, eg surgical, radiology, diagnose or treat to help the main problem or a later complications / developments.

Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations in certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are differences from country to country in respect of the specialties of certain specialty areas are in.

The main branches of medicine are used in Wikipedia:

Basic sciences of medicine, which is what every doctor trained in, and some return to in biomedical research.
Medical specialties
interdisciplinary areas in which mixed various medical disciplines to work in certain cases.
 Basic Sciences
Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, histology and cytology are microscopically small structures is concerned.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical found in living organisms, especially the structure and function of its chemical components.
Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the farthe most sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is in the planning, evaluation, critical, and the interpretation of medical research. It is also of fundamental importance for epidemiology and evidence-based medicine.
Cytology is the microscopic examination of individual cells.
Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms.
Epidemiology is the study of demographic processes of disease and includes but is not limited to the study of epidemics.
Genetics is the study of genes and their role in biological inheritance.
Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.
Immunology is the study of the immune system, the innate and acquired immune systems of people includes, for example.
Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Neuroscience encompasses the disciplines of science, which are connected to the study of the nervous system. A major focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord.
Nutrition science (theoretical focus) and dietetics (practical focus) is studying the relationship ofFood and drink to health and disease, especially in identifying einesn optimal nutrition. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition and cancer.
Pathology as a science is the study of disease-the causes, course, progression and their resolution.
Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions.
Physiology is the study of normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.
Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons.
Special Features
Main article: Medical specialty
In the broadest sense of "medicine", there are many different specialties. In most British specialties have their own body or institution (collectively as the Royal Colleges known, although currently not all use the term "Royal"), which have their own entrance exam. The development of a specialty is often driven by new technologies (such as the development of effective anesthetics) or practices (eg emergency departments), the desire for a unification of the physicians body shape and from there leads the reputation of the management of their own examination.

In medical circles, Spezialitäten usually fit into one of two broad categories: "Medicine" and "surgery". "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this field require training in "Internal Medicine". In Britain this would traditionally occupy hadurch allows the acquisition of the MRCP (Membership Examination of the Royal College of Physicians or equivalent college in Scotland or Ireland ve). "Surgery" refers to the practice of surgical medicine, and most subspecialties in this field require training in General Surgery. " (In the UK: Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS).) There are some specialties of medicine, in today's world not just in one of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Most of them are branched from one or other of the two camps developed over - for example, anesthesia, first as a faculty of the Royal College of Surgeons (for the MRCS / FRCS would have been necessary), before the Royal College of Anaesthetists and the College membership is determined by the meeting FRCA (Fellowship of the Royal College of Anaesthetists).

 Surgery
Main article: Surgery
Surgical specialties employ surgical treatment. In addition, physicians must deciden, when surgery is necessary, and also treat many non-surgical problems, especially in the surgical intensive care unit (SICU), arising where a variety of critical issues. Surgery has many subspecialties, eg general surgery, cardiac and vascular surgery, colorectal surgery, neurosurgery, maxillo-facial surgery, orthopedics, ENT, plastic surgery, surgical oncology, transplant surgery, trauma surgery, urology, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. Some centers Anesthesiology part of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it is not a surgical discipline.

Surgical education in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of the residency Medical School. Sub-specialty surgery often require seven or more years. Furthermore, an additional scholarship last 1-3 years. Because post-awards may be with competitive, many trainees for two more years use for research. Thus, in some cases surgical training does not end until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time consuming.

 "medicine" as a specialty
Main article: Internal Medicine
Internal medicine is the medical specialty with the diagnosis, management and nonsurgical treatmentsg of unusual or serious diseases affected, either as of a particular organ or system of the body whole. According to some sources, a priority is implied in the internal structures. [32] In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "Internal". Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called physicians. [33] These terms, internist or physician (in the strict sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, surgery, and above all, and his subspecialities.

Because their patiEltern are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists in hospitals not think much of their work. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any complex surgical problem, this kind of practice has become much rarer. In modern, urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: ie, they usually limit their medical practice to problems of an organ or system to a specific area of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the intestine and kidney [34].

In Commonwealth and some other countries, specialist paediatricians and geriatricians well as specialists (or internists), the old by thehe have the patient and not by body system described subspecialized. Elsewhere, particularly in North America, General Pediatrics is often a form of primary care.

There are many subspecialities (or disciplines) of internal medicine:

Cardiology
Critical Care Medicine
Emergency Medicine
Endocrinology
Gastroenterology
Geriatrics
Hematology
Hepatology
Infectious diseases
Nephrology
Oncology
Pediatrics
Pulmonology / Pulmonary
Rheumatology
Sleep Medicine
Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training to meet), varies considerably across the world: see the article on Medical education and physician for details. In North America, it requires at least three years after the Residency Medical School, which can then be followed by a 1-3 year scholarship granted in the above subspecialties. In general, the working hours of medical residents, less than in surgery, an average of 60 hours per week in the U.S.. This difference lies not in the United Kingdom, where all doctors are now legally obliged to work at less than 48 hours per week on average.

Diagnostic specialties
Clinical Laboratory Sciences, the clinical-diagnostic tests, the laboratory techniquesTo apply to diagnosis and treatment of patients. In the U.S., these services are supervised by a pathologist. The staff that in these departments work medical laboratory are technically trained staff who have no medical degree, but usually in the possession of a bachelor's degree to be medical devices, really needed the tests, tests and procedures for the provision of specific services. Subspecialties include Transfusion Medicine, Cellular Pathology, Clinical Chemistry, Haematology, Clinical Microbiology and Clinical Immunology.
Pathology as a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of disease and the morphological, physiological changes it produces. As a diagnostic specialty to pathology as the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Vielemodernen molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the field of pathology.
Radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body, such as X-ray, X-ray computed tomography, ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging.
Nuclear medicine is the study of human organ systems through the administration of radiolabeled Su(Bstanzen radiopharmaceuticals) to be the body that may be outside of the body represented by a gamma camera or PET scanner worried. Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer, which is considered specific to the function (eg neurotransmitter path, pathway, blood flow, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter). There is some overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, as evidenced by the appearance of combined devices such as PET / CT scanner.
Clinical Neurophysiology is the examination of the physiology or function affected the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. This kind of testing can be divided into receptacles: (a) are spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include electroencephalography, electromyography, evoked potentials, nerve conduction study and Polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are carried out by technicians without C.ut a medical study, but is the interpretation of these tests carried out by a doctor.
Other major specialties
Here are some key medical specialties that do not fit directly into one of the above groups.

Dermatology is the skin and its diseases. In Britain, the Dermatologie a branch of general medicine.
Emergency medicine is the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric concerns, and psychiatric emergencies.
Family medicine, family practice, general practice or primary health care in many countries of the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems.
Gynecology and Obstetrics (often referred to as OB / GYN (American English) or Obs & Gynae (British English)) can be abbreviated with childbirth and the female reproductive organs and related bodies concerned. Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally practiced by gynecological specialists.
Medical genetics is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of hereditary diseases.
Neurology is concerned with diseases of the nervous system. In Britain, a neurology branch of general medicine.
Ophthalmology exclusively with the eye and ocular adnexal concerned combination of conservative and surgical therapy.
Pediatrics (AE) or paediatrics (BE) is to the care of infants, children, and devoted sichdolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age groups, organ systems, disease classes and sites of care.

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Preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with the prevention of disease.
Community or public health is an aspect of public health threats to the overall health of a community on the health of the affected population analysis.
Health's main task is to provide health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of safety and health can be achieved and maintained at work.
Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel.
 interdisciplinary areas
Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include:

Addiction medicine is concerned with the treatment of addiction.
Bioethics is a field of study, which concerns the relationship between biology, science, medicine and ethics, Philosophere and theology.
Biomedical engineering is a field that deals with the application of engineering principles to medical practice.
Clinical pharmacology is concerned interact with systems such as the treatment with patients.
Conservation medicine studies the relationship between man and animal, and environmental conditions. Ecological medicine, environmental medicine, geology or medicine known.
Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of emergency planning, disaster preparedness and management.
Diving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems.
Evolutionary medicine is a perspective of medicine through the application of the theory of evolution is derived.
Forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context, such as determining the time and cause of death.
Gender-based medicine studies the biological and physiological differences between the sexes and the human impact, as the differences in the disease.
Hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Doctors, whose primary focus is professional hospital medicine called Hospitalist in the U.S..
Laser medicine includes the use of lasers in the diagnosis and / or treatment of various conditions.
Medical humanities includes the humanities (Literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social sciences (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice.
Medical computer science, medical computer science, medical information and eHealth are relatively recent fields that deal with the application of computer and information technology in medicine.
Nosology is the classification of diseases for various purposes.
Nosokinetics is the science / subject of measuring and modeling the process of care in health and social systems.
Pain management (also known as painkillers or algiatry) is the medical discipline concerned with the alleviation of pain.
Palliative Care is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine, dealing with pain and symptom relief and emotional support for patients with incurable diseases including cancer and heart disease.
Pharmacogenomics is a form of individualized medicine.
Sexual medicine is concerned with the diagnosis, assessment and treatment of all diseases related to sexuality.
Sports medicine deals with the treatment and prevention of athletes, amateurs and professionals. The team includes specialists and surgeons, sports trainers, physical therapists, coaches, staff, and of course the AthLeten.
Therapeutics is the field more frequently in earlier periods of history, the various means that are used to treat disease and promote health [1] can be referred.
Travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with health problems of internationalenal travelers or travelers in very different environments.
Urgent care focuses on the provision of unscheduled, walk-in care outside the emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not strong enough to require care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions, this feature is combined with the emergency room.
Veterinary medicine, veterinarians apply similar techniques as physicians who treat the animals.
Wilderness medicine includes the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not be available.
Many other health science field, such as dietetics
 Education
Main articles: Medical education and medical school

Painted by Toulouse-Lautrec in the year of his own death: a study in the Paris Faculty of Medicine, varies 1901Medical education and training around the world. It generally consists of initial training at a medical faculty of the university, followed by a period of supervised practice or a practiceorder and / or residency. This may be followed by the post-graduate education. A variety of teaching methods employed in medical education, nor even a focus of research active.

Many regulatory authorities require continuing medical education, because knowledge, techniques and medical technology continue to advance at a rapid rate.

Legal controls
In most countries there is a legal requirement for the doctor amedizinische be certified or registered. In general, this means a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may require the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession that doctors are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a protection against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require doctors to "evidence based trained, Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to prevent various paradigms of health.

Doctors who may negligently or intentionally harmful in their care of patients in the amount of medical malpractice Gesicht and are subject to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions.

Controversy
The Catholic social theorist Ivan Illich subjected to contemporary western medicine to detailed attack in his Medical Nemesis, released in 1975. He argued that the medicalization in recent decades as many vicissitudes of life - birth and death, for example - often causes more harm than good, and made many people, in fact, lifelong patient. He mobilizes a body of statistics to show what he induced the shocking extent of post-operative side effects and drug-disease seen in advanced industrial society. He was the first to introduce a broadening concept of public iatrogenesis. [35] Others have expressed similar views, there, but none so trenchantly, perhaps, as Illich [36].

Through the course of the twentieth century, healthcare providers increasingly on the technology that was enabling them to make dramatic improvements in the health of patients. The subsequent development of a mechanistic, detached practice, with the perception of an attendant loss of patient-centered care, as the medical model of health, led to criticisms that medicine was neglecting a holistic model known. [Editn The inability of] modern medicine requires properly address some common complaints continues to prompt many people to seek support from alternative medicine. Although most alternative approaches lack scientific validation of some, particularly acupuncture for some conditions and certain herbs have been demonstrated. [37]

Medical errors and overmedication are also the focus of complaints and negative coverage. Practitioners of human factors engineering believe that there is much that medicine may usefully gain by emulating concepts in aviation safety, where it recognized that it is dangerous, too much responsibility on one "superhuman" individual space and expect him or her not error to do. Reporting systems and control mechanisms are becoming more common in identifying sources of error and improving practice. Clinical versus statistical, algorithmic diagnostic methods have been known in practice Psychiatr untersuchtIC in a 1954 book by Paul E. Meehl, who plan found controversial statistical methods. [38] A 2000 meta-analysis comparing these methods in psychology and medicine, found that statistical or "mechanical" diagnostic methods were usually, though not always superior. [38]

The differences in the quality of care are often a moreCause of the controversy. [39] For example, elderly mentally ill patients received poorer care during the hospital stay in a study in 2008 [40]. Rural poor African-American men were used in a study of syphilis that denied them basic medical care.